> For the complete documentation index, see [llms.txt](https://drew-m-loewe.gitbook.io/open-educational-resource-prepared-by-drew-m.-loewe-for-learning-about-argumentation-and-synthesis/llms.txt). Markdown versions of documentation pages are available by appending `.md` to page URLs; this page is available as [Markdown](https://drew-m-loewe.gitbook.io/open-educational-resource-prepared-by-drew-m.-loewe-for-learning-about-argumentation-and-synthesis/the-toulmin-model-of-argumentation/types-of-claims-and-how-they-are-expressed.md).

# Types of Claims and How They are Expressed

The type of claim (its stasis) will affect *how the claim is expressed* and what kind of support might be offered:

| Stasis (Type of Question)  | What It Asks                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            | Sample Claim                                                                                                              |
| -------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| **Existence**              | <p>– What evidence shows the issue, phenomenon, or event actually exists?<br>– Do relevant stakeholders agree on these core facts?</p>                                                                                                                                  | “Data from three independent labs confirm that micro‑plastics are present in 80% of municipal tap‑water samples.”         |
| **Procedure/Jurisdiction** | <p>– Which body or individual has authority to decide this matter?<br>– Have all deadlines and procedural prerequisites been met?<br>– Is there an alternative venue or process that would be more appropriate?</p>                                                     | “This lawsuit should be dismissed because the contract requires binding arbitration, not litigation in state court.”      |
| **Definition**             | <p>– How should we define or name this phenomenon?<br>– What criteria must something meet to fit this definition?<br>– Which competing definitions exist and which definitions are most accurate?<br>– How might a different label change our analysis or response?</p> | “Social‑media ‘likes’ should be classified as a form of personal data under privacy law.”                                 |
| **Cause/Effect**           | <p>– What caused this?<br>– What will its effects be?</p>                                                                                                                                                                                                               | “Raising the minimum wage to $17/hour will reduce employee turnover in the service sector by at least 20% within a year.” |
| **Value**                  | <p>– By what standards should we judge this phenomenon?<br>– Is it good, bad, mixed, etc.?<br>– How does it align with what we value ethically, artistically, socially, or culturally?</p>                                                                              | “Banning books that discuss gender identity in high‑school libraries undermines students’ intellectual freedom.”          |
| **Comparison**             | <p>– Compared similar phenomena or alternatives, is this better or worse?<br>– What criteria are we using to compare them?</p>                                                                                                                                          | “Community‑based restorative‑justice programs are more effective than traditional incarceration at reducing recidivism.”  |
| **Policy**                 | <p>– What specific action should be taken?<br>– How will this action address the problem?<br>– Is the solution feasible within existing resources and constraints?<br>– How will we know whether we have succeeded or failed?</p>                                       | “Congress should pass a federal shield law to protect journalists from revealing confidential sources in court.”          |

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#### The Type of Claim Shifts the Language Used to Make It

* **Fact claims** might lean on observable evidence (“confirm,” “data”) and typically avoid prescriptive verbs.
* **Procedure/Jurisdiction claims** typically invoke authority, venue, or procedural rules and hinge on whether the correct forum, timeline, or steps have been observed.
* **Definition claims** might use classification verbs (“should be classified”) and hinge on criteria.
* **Causal claims** often feature causal connectors (“will reduce,” “leads to”), often with time frames or measurable effects.
* **Value claims** probably embed an evaluative term (“undermines,” “beneficial”) and appeal to agreed‑upon standards.
* **Comparison claims** juxtapose alternatives and rely on comparative adjectives (“more effective”).
* **Policy claims** often contain a clear action verb (“should pass”) and may invoke authority or venue (“Congress,” “the Supreme Court,” “faculty senate”).
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